@article{ahmad2017, title = {Sex Differences in the Role of Phospholipase {{A2}}-Dependent Arachidonic Acid Pathway in the Perivascular Adipose Tissue Function in Pigs}, author = {Ahmad, Abdulla A. and Randall, Michael D. and Roberts, Richard E.}, year = {2017}, volume = {595}, pages = {6623--6634}, issn = {0022-3751}, doi = {10.1113/jp274831}, journal = {The Journal of Physiology}, number = {21} } @article{becker2016, title = {Female Rats Are Not More Variable than Male Rats: A Meta-Analysis of Neuroscience Studies}, author = {Becker, Jill B. and Prendergast, Brian J. and Liang, Jing W.}, year = {2016}, month = jul, volume = {7}, pages = {34}, issn = {2042-6410}, doi = {10.1186/s13293-016-0087-5}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/JZSWCJXH/Becker et al. - 2016 - Female rats are not more variable than male rats .pdf}, journal = {Biology of Sex Differences}, number = {1} } @article{beery2018, title = {Inclusion of Females Does Not Increase Variability in Rodent Research Studies}, author = {Beery, Annaliese K.}, year = {2018}, month = oct, volume = {23}, pages = {143--149}, issn = {2352-1546}, doi = {10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.06.016}, abstract = {Underrepresentation of female subjects in animal research has gained attention in recent years, and new NIH guidelines aim to address this problem early, at the grant proposal stage. Many researchers believe that requirements regarding use of females will hamper research because of a need for increased sample sizes, and increased costs. Empirical research across multiple rodent species and traits demonstrates that females are not more variable than males, and that for most traits, female estrous cyclicity need not be considered. Statistical simulations, presented here, illustrate how factorial designs can reduce the need for additional research subjects, and cultural issues around the inclusion of male and female subjects in research are discussed.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/PU7SLTRY/Beery - 2018 - Inclusion of females does not increase variability.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/8C85MFSM/S235215461730205X.html}, journal = {Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences}, series = {Sex and {{Gender}}} } @article{beery2011, title = {Sex Bias in Neuroscience and Biomedical Research}, author = {Beery, Annaliese K. and Zucker, Irving}, year = {2011}, month = jan, volume = {35}, pages = {565--572}, issn = {0149-7634}, doi = {10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.07.002}, abstract = {Female mammals have long been neglected in biomedical research. The NIH mandated enrollment of women in human clinical trials in 1993, but no similar initiatives exist to foster research on female animals. We reviewed sex bias in research on mammals in 10 biological fields for 2009 and their historical precedents. Male bias was evident in 8 disciplines and most prominent in neuroscience, with single-sex studies of male animals outnumbering those of females 5.5 to 1. In the past half-century, male bias in non-human studies has increased while declining in human studies. Studies of both sexes frequently fail to analyze results by sex. Underrepresentation of females in animal models of disease is also commonplace, and our understanding of female biology is compromised by these deficiencies. The majority of articles in several journals are conducted on rats and mice to the exclusion of other useful animal models. The belief that non-human female mammals are intrinsically more variable than males and too troublesome for routine inclusion in research protocols is without foundation. We recommend that when only one sex is studied, this should be indicated in article titles, and that funding agencies favor proposals that investigate both sexes and analyze data by sex.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/HC2247MX/Beery and Zucker - 2011 - Sex Bias in Neuroscience and Biomedical Research.pdf}, journal = {Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews}, number = {3}, pmcid = {PMC3008499}, pmid = {20620164} } @article{caswell1986, title = {Two-{{Sex Models}}: {{Chaos}}, {{Extinction}}, and {{Other Dynamic Consequences}} of {{Sex}}}, shorttitle = {Two-{{Sex Models}}}, author = {Caswell, Hal and Weeks, Daniel E.}, year = {1986}, month = nov, volume = {128}, pages = {707--735}, publisher = {{The University of Chicago Press}}, issn = {0003-0147}, doi = {10.1086/284598}, abstract = {Most demographic models consider only one sex, usually the female. The widespread occurrence of sexual dimorphism in life history traits and the occurrence of skewed and fluctuating sex ratios suggest that one-sex models or those dominated by one sex may often be less appropriate than two-sex models. Reproduction in two-sex models is a frequency-dependent nonlinear function (the birth or marriage function) of the relative abundance of males and females. In this paper, we examine the population dynamics resulting from three different two-sex, discrete-time, population-projection models. For a large class of birth functions, models without inter-stage mate competition are shown to converge to a locally stable adult sex ratio. Formulas for the stable population structure, stable sex ratio, and reproductive value at equilibrium are derived. When individuals of different stages compete for mates, the equilibrium population structure may become unstable. A sequence of bifurcations then occurs, leading to periodic oscillations, quasi-periodic fluctuations, and chaos as the intensity of competition increases. Finally, when per capita fecundity is a sigmoid function of the relative abundance of the other sex, perturbations of the sex ratio may lead to extinction.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/JCUBBMPH/284598.html}, journal = {The American Naturalist}, number = {5} } @article{clayton2014, title = {Policy: {{NIH}} to Balance Sex in Cell and Animal Studies}, author = {Clayton, J. A. and Collins, F. S.}, year = {2014}, month = may, volume = {509}, pages = {282--3}, issn = {1476-4687 (Electronic) 0028-0836 (Linking)}, journal = {Nature}, keywords = {*Animal Experimentation/standards,*National Institutes of Health (U.S.)/economics,*Research Design/standards,*Sex Characteristics,*Sex Ratio,Animals,Animals; Laboratory,Biomedical Research/economics/*methods/standards,Cell Line,Disease Models; Animal,Encephalomyelitis; Autoimmune; Experimental/pathology,Female,Financing; Organized/organization \& administration,Humans,Male,Multiple Sclerosis/drug therapy/pathology,Neurons/cytology/drug effects/pathology,Peer Review; Research/standards,Substance-Related Disorders/drug therapy/physiopathology,United States}, number = {7500} } @article{clayton2015a, ids = {claytonStudyingBothSexes2015a}, title = {Studying Both Sexes: A Guiding Principle for Biomedicine}, author = {Clayton, Janine Austin}, year = {2015}, volume = {30}, pages = {519--524}, issn = {0892-6638}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/2CFIJMIV/Clayton - 2015 - Studying both sexes a guiding principle for biome.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/UCMRMQLH/fj.html}, journal = {The FASEB Journal}, number = {2} } @article{cleasby2011, title = {Neglected Biological Patterns in the Residuals}, author = {Cleasby, Ian R. and Nakagawa, Shinichi}, year = {2011}, month = dec, volume = {65}, pages = {2361--2372}, issn = {1432-0762}, doi = {10.1007/s00265-011-1254-7}, abstract = {One of the fundamental assumptions underlying linear regression models is that the errors have a constant variance (i.e., homoscedastic). When this assumption is violated, standard errors from a regression can be biased and inconsistent, meaning that the associated p values and 95\% confidence intervals cannot be trusted. The assumption of homoscedasticity is made for statistical reasons rather than biological reasons; in most real datasets, some form of heteroscedasticity is likely to exist. However, a survey of the behavioural ecology literature showed that only about 5\% of articles explicitly mentioned heteroscedasticity, leaving 95\% of articles in which heteroscedasticity was apparently absent. These results strongly indicate that the prevalence of heteroscedasticity is widely under-reported within behavioural ecology. The aim of this article is to raise awareness of heteroscedasticity amongst behavioural ecologists. Using topical examples from fields in behavioural ecology such as sexual dimorphism and animal personality, we highlight the biological importance of considering heteroscedasticity. We also emphasize that researchers should pay closer attention to the variance in their data and consider what factors could cause heteroscedasticity. In addition, we introduce some simple methods of dealing with heteroscedasticity. The two methods we focus on are: (1) incorporating variance functions within a generalised least squares (GLS) framework to model the functional form of heteroscedasticity and; (2) heteroscedasticity-consistent standard error (HCSE) estimators, which can be used when the functional form of heteroscedasticity is unknown. Using case studies, we show how both methods can influence the output from linear regression models. Finally, we hope that more researchers will consider heteroscedasticity as an important source of additional information about the particular biological process being studied, rather than an impediment to statistical analysis.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/C4IC7LZC/Cleasby and Nakagawa - 2011 - Neglected biological patterns in the residuals.pdf}, journal = {Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology}, language = {en}, number = {12} } @article{colchero2017, title = {Individual Heterogeneity Determines Sex Differences in Mortality in a Monogamous Bird with Reversed Sexual Dimorphism}, author = {Colchero, Fernando and Aliaga, Alix Eva and Jones, Owen R. and Conde, Dalia A.}, year = {2017}, month = jul, volume = {86}, pages = {899--907}, publisher = {{Wiley}}, address = {{Hoboken}}, issn = {0021-8790}, doi = {10.1111/1365-2656.12677}, abstract = {1. Sex differences in mortality are pervasive in vertebrates, and usually result in shorter life spans in the larger sex, although the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. On the other hand, differences in frailty among individuals (i.e. individual heterogeneity), can play a major role in shaping demographic trajectories in wild populations. The link between these two processes has seldom been explored. 2. We used Bayesian survival trajectory analysis to study age-specific mortality trajectories in the Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), a monogamous raptor with reversed sexual size dimorphism. We tested the effect of individual heterogeneity on age-specific mortality, and the extent by which this heterogeneity was determined by average reproductive output and wing length as measures of an individual's frailty. 3. We found that sex differences in age-specific mortality were primarily driven by the differences in individual heterogeneity between the two sexes. Females were more heterogeneous than males in their level of frailty. Thus, a larger number of females with low frailty are able to survive to older ages than males, with life expectancy for the least frail adult females reaching up to 4.23 years, while for the least frail adult males it was of 2.68 years. 4. We found that 50\% of this heterogeneity was determined by average reproductive output and wing length in both sexes. For both, individuals with high average reproductive output had also higher chances to survive. However, the effect of wing length was different between the two sexes. While larger females had higher survival, larger males had lower chances to survive. 5. Our results contribute a novel perspective to the ongoing debate about the mechanisms that drive sex differences in vital rates in vertebrates. Although we found that variables that relate to the cost of reproduction and sexual dimorphism are at least partially involved in determining these sex differences, it is through their effect on the level of frailty that they affect age patterns of mortality. Therefore, our results raise the possibility that observed differences in age-specific demographic rates may in fact be driven by differences in individual heterogeneity.}, annotation = {WOS:000403146400019}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/W4HS228B/Colchero et al. - 2017 - Individual heterogeneity determines sex difference.pdf}, journal = {Journal of Animal Ecology}, keywords = {adult survival,age-specific survival,Bayesian survival trajectory analysis,body-mass,cost of reproduction,costs,individual heterogeneity,natural-populations,quality,reproductive success,selection,sex differences in mortality,sexual dimorphism,wild population,wing length}, language = {English}, number = {4} } @article{cuervo2001, title = {Components of Phenotypic Variation in Avian Ornamental and Non-Ornamental Feathers}, author = {Cuervo, Jos{\'e} Javier and M{\o}ller, Anders Pape}, year = {2001}, month = jan, volume = {15}, pages = {53--72}, issn = {1573-8477}, doi = {10.1023/A:1011913804309}, abstract = {Phenotypic variation, measured as the coefficient of variation (CV), is usually larger in secondary sexual characters than in ordinary morphological traits. We tested if intraspecific differences in the CV between ornamental and non-ornamental feather traits in 67 evolutionary events of feather ornamentation in birds were due to differences in (1) the allometric pattern (slope of the regression line when regressing trait size on an indicator of body size), or (2) the dispersion of observations around the regression line. We found that only dispersion of observations around the regression line contributed significantly to total variation. A large dispersion of observations around the regression line for ornamental feathers is consistent with these characters showing condition-dependence, supporting indicator models of sexual selection more strongly than a pure Fisher process. Ornamental feathers in males demonstrated negative allometry when regressed on tarsus length, which is a measure of skeletal body size. This finding is consistent with ornamental feather traits being subject to directional selection due to female mate preferences, where large body size is less important than in male\textendash male competition. This pattern of phenotypic variation for avian secondary sexual characters contrasts with patterns of variation for insect genitalia, supposedly subject to sexual selection, since the latter traits only differ from ordinary morphology traits in allometry coefficient. The prevailing regime of selection (directional or stabilizing) and the effects of environmental factors are proposed to account for these differences among traits.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/AQM648LV/Cuervo and Møller - 2001 - Components of phenotypic variation in avian orname.pdf}, journal = {Evolutionary Ecology}, language = {en}, number = {1} } @article{cuervo1999, title = {Phenotypic Variation and Fluctuating Asymmetry in Sexually Dimorphic Feather Ornaments in Relation to Sex and Mating System}, author = {Cuervo, Jos{\'e} Javier and M{\o}ller, Anders Pape}, year = {1999}, month = dec, volume = {68}, pages = {505--529}, publisher = {{Oxford Academic}}, issn = {0024-4066}, doi = {10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01186.x}, abstract = {Abstract. Secondary sexual characters have been hypothesized to demonstrate increased phenotypic variation between and within individuals as compared to ordina}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/V28GRY7T/Cuervo and Møller - 1999 - Phenotypic variation and fluctuating asymmetry in .pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/Z9JPX8PA/2645362.html}, journal = {Biological Journal of the Linnean Society}, language = {en}, number = {4} } @article{dickinson2016, title = {High-Throughput Discovery of Novel Developmental Phenotypes}, author = {Dickinson, Mary E. and Flenniken, Ann M. and Ji, Xiao and Teboul, Lydia and Wong, Michael D. and White, Jacqueline K. and Meehan, Terrence F. and Weninger, Wolfgang J. and Westerberg, Henrik and Adissu, Hibret and Baker, Candice N. and Bower, Lynette and Brown, James M. and Caddle, L. Brianna and Chiani, Francesco and Clary, Dave and Cleak, James and Daly, Mark J. and Denegre, James M. and Doe, Brendan and Dolan, Mary E. and Edie, Sarah M. and Fuchs, Helmut and {Gailus-Durner}, Valerie and Galli, Antonella and Gambadoro, Alessia and Gallegos, Juan and Guo, Shiying and Horner, Neil R. and Hsu, Chih-Wei and Johnson, Sara J. and Kalaga, Sowmya and Keith, Lance C. and Lanoue, Louise and Lawson, Thomas N. and Lek, Monkol and Mark, Manuel and Marschall, Susan and Mason, Jeremy and McElwee, Melissa L. and Newbigging, Susan and Nutter, Lauryl M. J. and Peterson, Kevin A. and {Ramirez-Solis}, Ramiro and Rowland, Douglas J. and Ryder, Edward and Samocha, Kaitlin E. and Seavitt, John R. and Selloum, Mohammed and {Szoke-Kovacs}, Zsombor and Tamura, Masaru and Trainor, Amanda G. and Tudose, Ilinca and Wakana, Shigeharu and Warren, Jonathan and Wendling, Olivia and West, David B. and Wong, Leeyean and Yoshiki, Atsushi and The International Mouse Phenotyping, Consortium and McKay, Matthew and Urban, Barbara and Lund, Caroline and Froeter, Erin and LaCasse, Taylor and Mehalow, Adrienne and Gordon, Emily and Donahue, Leah Rae and Taft, Robert and Kutney, Peter and Dion, Stephanie and Goodwin, Leslie and Kales, Susan and Urban, Rachel and Palmer, Kristina and Pertuy, Fabien and Bitz, Deborah and Weber, Bruno and {Goetz-Reiner}, Patrice and Jacobs, Hughes and Le Marchand, Elise and El Amri, Amal and El Fertak, Leila and Ennah, Hamid and {Ali-Hadji}, Dalila and Ayadi, Abdel and {Wattenhofer-Donze}, Marie and Jacquot, Sylvie and Andr{\'e}, Philippe and Birling, Marie-Christine and Pavlovic, Guillaume and Sorg, Tania and Morse, Iva and Benso, Frank and Stewart, Michelle E. and Copley, Carol and Harrison, Jackie and Joynson, Samantha and Guo, Ruolin and Qu, Dawei and Spring, Shoshana and Yu, Lisa and Ellegood, Jacob and Morikawa, Lily and Shang, Xueyuan and Feugas, Pat and Creighton, Amie and Castellanos Penton, Patricia and Danisment, Ozge and Griggs, Nicola and Tudor, Catherine L. and Green, Angela L. and Icoresi Mazzeo, Cecilia and Siragher, Emma and Lillistone, Charlotte and Tuck, Elizabeth and Gleeson, Diane and Sethi, Debarati and Bayzetinova, Tanya and Burvill, Jonathan and Habib, Bishoy and Weavers, Lauren and Maswood, Ryea and Miklejewska, Evelina and Woods, Michael and Grau, Evelyn and Newman, Stuart and Sinclair, Caroline and Brown, Ellen and Ayabe, Shinya and Iwama, Mizuho and Murakami, Ayumi and Wurst, Wolfgang and MacArthur, Daniel G. and {Tocchini-Valentini}, Glauco P. and Gao, Xiang and Flicek, Paul and Bradley, Allan and Skarnes, William C. and Justice, Monica J. and Parkinson, Helen E. and Moore, Mark and Wells, Sara and Braun, Robert E. and Svenson, Karen L. and {de Angelis}, Martin Hrabe and Herault, Yann and Mohun, Tim and Mallon, Ann-Marie and Henkelman, R. Mark and Brown, Steve D. M. and Adams, David J. and Lloyd, K. C. Kent and McKerlie, Colin and Beaudet, Arthur L. and Bu{\'c}an, Maja and Murray, Stephen A.}, year = {09/14/online 2016}, volume = {537}, pages = {508}, doi = {10.1038/nature19356 https://www.nature.com/articles/nature19356#supplementary-information}, journal = {Nature} } @article{senior2016, title = {Heterogeneity in Ecological and Evolutionary Meta-Analyses: Its Magnitude and Implications}, author = {Senior, Alistair M. and Grueber, Catherine E. and Kamiya, Tsukushi and Lagisz, Malgorzata and O'Dwyer, Katie and Santos, Eduardo S. A. and Nakagawa, Shinichi}, year = {2016}, volume = {97}, pages = {3293--3299}, doi = {10.1002/ecy.1591}, abstract = {Abstract Meta-analysis is the gold standard for synthesis in ecology and evolution. Together with estimating overall effect magnitudes, meta-analyses estimate differences between effect sizes via heterogeneity statistics. It is widely hypothesized that heterogeneity will be present in ecological/evolutionary meta-analyses due to the system-specific nature of biological phenomena. Despite driving recommended best practices, the generality of heterogeneity in ecological data has never been systematically reviewed. We reviewed 700 studies, finding 325 that used formal meta-analysis, of which total heterogeneity was reported in fewer than 40\%. We used second-order meta-analysis to collate heterogeneity statistics from 86 studies. Our analysis revealed that the median and mean heterogeneity, expressed as I2, are 84.67\% and 91.69\%, respectively. These estimates are well above ``high'' heterogeneity (i.e., 75\%), based on widely adopted benchmarks. We encourage reporting heterogeneity in the forms of I2 and the estimated variance components (e.g., {$\tau$}2) as standard practice. These statistics provide vital insights in to the degree to which effect sizes vary, and provide the statistical support for the exploration of predictors of effect-size magnitude. Along with standard meta-regression techniques that fit moderator variables, multi-level models now allow partitioning of heterogeneity among correlated (e.g., phylogenetic) structures that exist within data.}, eprint = {https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ecy.1591}, journal = {Ecology}, keywords = {Cochran's Q,eco-evolutionary meta-analysis,effect size,homogeneity,I2,meta-regression,mixed model,phylogenetic signal/heritability,quantitative review,sampling variance,systematic review,weighted regression}, number = {12} } @article{dorris2015, title = {Intrinsic Excitability Varies by Sex in Prepubertal Striatal Medium Spiny Neurons}, author = {Dorris, D. M. and Cao, J. Y. and Willett, J. A. and Hauser, C. A. and Meitzen, J.}, year = {2015}, month = feb, volume = {113}, pages = {720--729}, issn = {0022-3077}, doi = {10.1152/jn.00687.2014}, journal = {Journal of Neurophysiology}, number = {3} } @article{fisher2015, title = {Robumeta: {{An R}}-Package for Robust Variance Estimation in Meta-Analysis}, author = {Fisher, Zachary and Tipton, Elizabeth}, year = {2015}, archiveprefix = {arXiv}, eprint = {1503.02220}, eprinttype = {arxiv}, journal = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1503.02220} } @article{flanagan2014, title = {Sexual Dimorphism in Biomedical Research: A Call to Analyse by Sex}, author = {Flanagan, K. L.}, year = {2014}, month = jul, volume = {108}, pages = {385--7}, issn = {0035-9203}, doi = {10.1093/trstmh/tru079}, journal = {Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.}, keywords = {*Sex Characteristics,Biomedical Research/*methods,Chromosomes; Human; X/physiology,Female,Humans,Immunity,Immunity/*physiology,Infections,Male,MicroRNAs,Sex Chromosomes/physiology,Sex hormones,Vaccines,X chromosome}, language = {eng}, number = {7} } @article{foltin2018, title = {Sex Differences in the Anorexigenic Effects of Dexfenfluramine and Amphetamine in Baboons}, author = {Foltin, Richard W. and Evans, Suzette M.}, year = {2018}, volume = {26}, pages = {335--340}, issn = {1936-2293(Electronic),1064-1297(Print)}, doi = {10.1037/pha0000201}, journal = {Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology}, keywords = {*Amphetamine,*Animal Feeding Behavior,*Animal Sex Differences,*Baboons,Food Intake}, number = {4} } @article{fritz2017, title = {Similar Reliability and Equivalent Performance of Female and Male Mice in the Open Field and Water-maze Place Navigation Task}, author = {Fritz, Ann-Kristina and Amrein, Irmgard and Wolfer, David P.}, year = {2017}, month = sep, volume = {175}, pages = {380--391}, issn = {1552-4868}, doi = {10.1002/ajmg.c.31565}, abstract = {Although most nervous system diseases affect women and men differentially, most behavioral studies using mouse models do not include subjects of both sexes. Many researchers worry that data of female mice may be unreliable due to the estrous cycle. Here, we retrospectively evaluated sex effects on coefficient of variation (CV) in 5,311 mice which had performed the same place navigation protocol in the water-maze and in 4,554 mice tested in the same open field arena. Confidence intervals for Cohen's d as measure of effect size were computed and tested for equivalence with 0.2 as equivalence margin. Despite the large sample size, only few behavioral parameters showed a significant sex effect on CV. Confidence intervals of effect size indicated that CV was either equivalent or showed a small sex difference at most, accounting for less than 2\% of total group to group variation of CV. While female mice were potentially slightly more variable in water-maze acquisition and in the open field, males tended to perform less reliably in the water-maze probe trial. In addition to evaluating variability, we also directly compared mean performance of female and male mice and found them to be equivalent in both water-maze place navigation and open field exploration. Our data confirm and extend other large scale studies in demonstrating that including female mice in experiments does not cause a relevant increase of data variability. Our results make a strong case for including mice of both sexes whenever open field or water-maze are used in preclinical research.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/SGF7X2FG/Fritz et al. - 2017 - Similar reliability and equivalent performance of .pdf}, journal = {American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part C, Seminars in Medical Genetics}, number = {3}, pmcid = {PMC5638061}, pmid = {28654717} } @article{grossman1989, title = {Possible Underlying Mechanisms of Sexual Dimorphism in the Immune Response, Fact and Hypothesis}, author = {Grossman, C.}, year = {1989}, month = jan, volume = {34}, pages = {241--251}, issn = {0022-4731}, doi = {10.1016/0022-4731(89)90088-5}, abstract = {It is a confirmed fact that in females both the humoral and cell mediated immune response is more active than in males. A large amount of information supports the view that hormones of the endocrine system are intimately involved in this immunological dimorphism. Such hormones include the gonadal steroids, the adrenal glucocorticoids, growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (Prl) from the pituitary, thymic hormones, and substances generated by activated lymphocytes. It is suggested that a complex medley of these hormonal interactions effect both developing lymphocytes within the microenvironment and regulate adult effector cells. The most important of these hormonal interactions leading to immunological dimorphism are the effects elicited by estrogen (E) elaborated at elevated levels from the female ovary after puberty. Elevated E leads to basal GH secretion, increased Prl, and increased thymosin release, all of which are hypothesized to effect lymphocyte development and stimulate adult T- and B-cell function in females. Interactions of hormonal regulatory axes involving the hypothalamus, pituitary, gonads, adrenals, and thymus are also thought to be involved. Factors elaborated by activated immune cells including IL-1 and IL-2 may also play a role in down regulation of these responses. Finally, genetic components are also considered pertinent especially under conditions of pathological disequilibrium leading to autoimmune disease. While the benefits provided by immunological dimorphism are still not entirely clarified, since sex hormones are intimately involved in immunological regulation it is quite possible that the increased immune response in females allows them to compensate for the increased physiological stress which accompanies reproduction. The final outcome would thus be the assurance of reproductive success of the species.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/MMCT82DK/Grossman - 1989 - Possible underlying mechanisms of sexual dimorphis.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/ITEMYXKW/0022473189900885.html}, journal = {Journal of Steroid Biochemistry}, number = {1} } @article{hansen2008, title = {Measuring and Comparing Evolvability and Constraint in Multivariate Characters}, author = {Hansen, T. F. and Houle, D.}, year = {2008}, month = sep, volume = {21}, pages = {1201--1219}, issn = {1010-061X}, doi = {10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01573.x}, abstract = {Abstract The Lande equation forms the basis for our understanding of the short-term evolution of quantitative traits in a multivariate context. It predicts the response to selection as the product of an additive genetic variance matrix and a selection gradient. The selection gradient approximates the force and direction of selection, and the genetic variance matrix quantifies the role of the genetic system in evolution. Attempts to understand the evolutionary significance of the genetic variance matrix are hampered by the fact that the majority of the methods used to characterize and compare variance matrices have not been derived in an explicit theoretical context. We use the Lande equation to derive new measures of the ability of a variance matrix to allow or constrain evolution in any direction in phenotype space. Evolvability captures the ability of a population to evolve in the direction of selection when stabilizing selection is absent. Conditional evolvability captures the ability of a population to respond to directional selection in the presence of stabilizing selection on other trait combinations. We then derive measures of character autonomy and integration from these evolvabilities. We study the properties of these measures and show how they can be used to interpret and compare variance matrices. As an illustration, we show that divergence of wing shape in the dipteran family Drosophilidae has proceeded in directions that have relatively high evolvabilities.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/TETYL439/j.1420-9101.2008.01573.html}, journal = {Journal of Evolutionary Biology}, keywords = {autonomy,evolvability,G matrix,integration,measurement theory,modularity,quantitative genetics,scaling}, number = {5} } @article{hedges1995, title = {Sex Differences in Mental Test Scores, Variability, and Numbers of High-Scoring Individuals}, author = {Hedges, L. V. and Nowell, A.}, year = {1995}, month = jul, volume = {269}, pages = {41--45}, issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203}, doi = {10.1126/science.7604277}, abstract = {Sex differences in central tendency, variability, and numbers of high scores on mental tests have been extensively studied. Research has not always seemed to yield consistent results, partly because most studies have not used representative samples of national populations. An analysis of mental test scores from six studies that used national probability samples provided evidence that although average sex differences have been generally small and stable over time, the test scores of males consistently have larger variance. Except in tests of reading comprehension, perceptual speed, and associative memory, males typically outnumber females substantially among high-scoring individuals.}, copyright = {\textcopyright{} 1995}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/9UI5RCSH/41.html}, journal = {Science}, language = {en}, number = {5220}, pmid = {7604277} } @book{higgins2019, title = {Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions}, author = {Higgins, Julian PT and Thomas, James and Chandler, Jacqueline and Cumpston, Miranda and Li, Tianjing and Page, Matthew J and Welch, Vivian A}, year = {2019}, publisher = {{John Wiley \& Sons}}, isbn = {1-119-53661-8} } @article{ingvorsen2017, title = {The Role of Sex and Body Weight on the Metabolic Effects of High-Fat Diet in {{C57BL}}/{{6N}} Mice}, author = {Ingvorsen, C. and Karp, N. A. and Lelliott, C. J.}, year = {04/10/online 2017}, volume = {7}, pages = {e261}, doi = {10.1038/nutd.2017.6 https://www.nature.com/articles/nutd20176#supplementary-information}, journal = {Nutrition \&Amp; Diabetes} } @article{itoh2015, title = {Are Females More Variable than Males in Gene Expression? {{Meta}}-Analysis of Microarray Datasets}, shorttitle = {Are Females More Variable than Males in Gene Expression?}, author = {Itoh, Yuichiro and Arnold, Arthur P.}, year = {2015}, month = oct, volume = {6}, issn = {2042-6410}, doi = {10.1186/s13293-015-0036-8}, abstract = {Background The majority of preclinical biomedical research involves studies of males rather than females. It is thought that researchers have avoided females based on the idea that female traits are more variable than those of males because of cyclic variation in effects of ovarian hormones. Methods To test the assumption of inherently greater female variability, we analyzed 293 microarray datasets measuring gene expression in various tissues of mice and humans, comprising analysis of more than 5 million probes. Results Meta-analysis showed that on average, male gene expression is slightly more variable than that of females although the difference is small. We also tested if the X chromosome of humans shows greater variability in gene expression in males than in females, as might be expected because of hemizygous exposure of polymorphic X alleles but again found little sex difference. Conclusion Our analysis supports and extends previous studies reporting no overall greater phenotypic variability in females. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13293-015-0036-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/WY4LJFB8/Itoh and Arnold - 2015 - Are females more variable than males in gene expre.pdf}, journal = {Biology of Sex Differences}, pmcid = {PMC4640155}, pmid = {26557976} } @article{johnson2008, title = {Sex Differences in Variability in General Intelligence: A New Look at the Old Question}, shorttitle = {Sex {{Differences}} in {{Variability}} in {{General Intelligence}}}, author = {Johnson, Wendy and Carothers, Andrew and Deary, Ian J.}, year = {2008}, month = nov, volume = {3}, pages = {518--531}, issn = {1745-6916}, doi = {10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00096.x}, abstract = {The idea that general intelligence may be more variable in males than in females has a long history. In recent years it has been presented as a reason that there is little, if any, mean sex difference in general intelligence, yet males tend to be overrepresented at both the top and bottom ends of its overall, presumably normal, distribution. Clear analysis of the actual distribution of general intelligence based on large and appropriately population-representative samples is rare, however. Using two population-wide surveys of general intelligence in 11-year-olds in Scotland, we showed that there were substantial departures from normality in the distribution, with less variability in the higher range than in the lower. Despite mean IQ-scale scores of 100, modal scores were about 105. Even above modal level, males showed more variability than females. This is consistent with a model of the population distribution of general intelligence as a mixture of two essentially normal distributions, one reflecting normal variation in general intelligence and one refecting normal variation in effects of genetic and environmental conditions involving mental retardation. Though present at the high end of the distribution, sex differences in variability did not appear to account for sex differences in high-level achievement.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/ZXAJCGQQ/Johnson et al. - 2008 - Sex Differences in Variability in General Intellig.pdf}, journal = {Perspectives on Psychological Science}, language = {en}, number = {6} } @article{karp2017, title = {Prevalence of Sexual Dimorphism in Mammalian Phenotypic Traits}, author = {Karp, N. A. and Mason, J. and Beaudet, A. L. and Benjamini, Y. and Bower, L. and Braun, R. E. and Brown, S. D. M. and Chesler, E. J. and Dickinson, M. E. and Flenniken, A. M. and Fuchs, H. and Angelis, M. H. and Gao, X. and Guo, S. and Greenaway, S. and Heller, R. and Herault, Y. and Justice, M. J. and Kurbatova, N. and Lelliott, C. J. and Lloyd, K. C. K. and Mallon, A. M. and Mank, J. E. and Masuya, H. and McKerlie, C. and Meehan, T. F. and Mott, R. F. and Murray, S. A. and Parkinson, H. and {Ramirez-Solis}, R. and Santos, L. and Seavitt, J. R. and Smedley, D. and Sorg, T. and Speak, A. O. and Steel, K. P. and Svenson, K. L. and International Mouse Phenotyping, Consortium and Wakana, S. and West, D. and Wells, S. and Westerberg, H. and Yaacoby, S. and White, J. K.}, year = {2017}, month = jun, volume = {8}, pages = {15475}, issn = {2041-1723 (Electronic) 2041-1723 (Linking)}, doi = {10.1038/ncomms15475}, journal = {Nature Communication}, pmcid = {PMC5490203} } @article{klein2015, title = {Opinion: {{Sex}} Inclusion in Basic Research Drives Discovery}, author = {Klein, Sabra L. and Schiebinger, Londa and Stefanick, Marcia L. and Cahill, Larry and Danska, Jayne and {de Vries}, Geert J. and Kibbe, Melina R. and McCarthy, Margaret M. and Mogil, Jeffrey S. and Woodruff, Teresa K. and Zucker, Irving}, year = {2015}, volume = {112}, pages = {5257--5258}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.1502843112}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}, number = {17} } @article{lehre2009, title = {Greater Intrasex Phenotype Variability in Males than in Females Is a Fundamental Aspect of the Gender Differences in Humans}, author = {Lehre, Anne-Catherine and Lehre, Knut P. and Laake, Petter and Danbolt, Niels C.}, year = {2009}, volume = {51}, pages = {198--206}, issn = {1098-2302}, doi = {10.1002/dev.20358}, abstract = {Human studies of intrasex variability have shown that males are intellectually more variable. Here we have performed retrospective statistical analysis of human intrasex variability in several different properties and performances that are unrelated or indirectly related to intelligence: (a) birth weights of nearly 48,000 babies (Medical Birth Registry of Norway); (b) adult weight, height, body mass index and blood parameters of more than 2,700 adults aged 18\textendash 90 (NORIP); (c) physical performance in the 60 meter dash event of 575 junior high school students; and (d) psychological performance reflected by the results of more than 222,000 undergraduate university examination grades (LIST). For all characteristics, the data were analyzed using cumulative distribution functions and the resultant intrasex variability for males was compared with that for females. The principal finding is that human intrasex variability is significantly higher in males, and consequently constitutes a fundamental sex difference. \textcopyright{} 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 51: 198\textendash 206, 2009}, copyright = {Copyright \textcopyright{} 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.}, journal = {Developmental Psychobiology}, keywords = {birth weight,cumulative distribution functions,gender differences,intrasex variability,university grades}, language = {en}, number = {2} } @article{lemaitre2020, title = {Sex Differences in Adult Lifespan and Aging Rates of Mortality across Wild Mammals}, author = {Lema{\^i}tre, Jean-Fran{\c c}ois and Ronget, Victor and Tidi{\`e}re, Morgane and Allain{\'e}, Dominique and Berger, V{\'e}rane and Cohas, Aur{\'e}lie and Colchero, Fernando and Conde, Dalia A. and Garratt, Michael and Liker, Andr{\'a}s and Marais, Gabriel A. B. and Scheuerlein, Alexander and Sz{\'e}kely, Tam{\'a}s and Gaillard, Jean-Michel}, year = {2020}, month = apr, volume = {117}, pages = {8546--8553}, publisher = {{National Academy of Sciences}}, issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.1911999117}, abstract = {In human populations, women consistently outlive men, which suggests profound biological foundations for sex differences in survival. Quantifying whether such sex differences are also pervasive in wild mammals is a crucial challenge in both evolutionary biology and biogerontology. Here, we compile demographic data from 134 mammal populations, encompassing 101 species, to show that the female's median lifespan is on average 18.6\% longer than that of conspecific males, whereas in humans the female advantage is on average 7.8\%. On the contrary, we do not find any consistent sex differences in aging rates. In addition, sex differences in median adult lifespan and aging rates are both highly variable across species. Our analyses suggest that the magnitude of sex differences in mammalian mortality patterns is likely shaped by local environmental conditions in interaction with the sex-specific costs of sexual selection.}, chapter = {Biological Sciences}, copyright = {\textcopyright{} 2020 . https://www.pnas.org/site/aboutpnas/licenses.xhtmlPublished under the PNAS license.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/HUIVJYSA/8546.html}, isbn = {9781911999119}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}, keywords = {comparative analysis,life history,longevity,senescence,sexual selection}, language = {en}, number = {15}, pmid = {32205429} } @article{lindstrom1998, title = {Sexual Reproduction and Population Dynamics: The Role of Polygyny and Demographic Sex Differences}, shorttitle = {Sexual Reproduction and Population Dynamics}, author = {Lindstr{\"o}m, Jan and Kokko, Hanna}, year = {1998}, month = mar, volume = {265}, pages = {483--488}, publisher = {{Royal Society}}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.1998.0320}, abstract = {Most models of population dynamics do not take sexual reproduction into account (i.e. they do not consider the role of males). However, assumptions behind this practice\textemdash that no demographic sex differences exist and males are always abundant enough to fertilize all the females\textemdash are usually not justified in natural populations. On the contrary, demographic sex differences are common, especially in polygynous species. Previous models that consider sexual reproduction report a stabilizing effect through mixing of different genotypes, thus suggesting a decrease in the propensity for complex dynamics in sexually reproducing populations. Here we show that considering the direct role of males in reproduction and density dependence leads to the conclusion that a two\textendash sex model is not necessarily more stable compared with the corresponding one\textendash sex model. Although solutions exist where sexual reproduction has a stabilizing effect even when no genotypic variability is included (primarily when associated with monogamy), factors like polygyny, sex differences in survival or density dependence, and possible alterations of the primary sex ratio (the Trivers\textendash Willard mechanism), may enlarge the parametric region of complex dynamics. Sexual reproduction therefore does not necessarily increase the stability of population dynamics and can have destabilizing effects, at least in species with complicated mating systems and sexual dimorphism.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/ZYBQX9FE/Lindström and Kokko - 1998 - Sexual reproduction and population dynamics the r.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/KBQM3E8L/rspb.1998.html}, journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences}, number = {1395} } @article{mogil2005, title = {The Case for the Inclusion of Female Subjects in Basic Science Studies of Pain}, author = {Mogil, Jeffrey S. and Chanda, Mona Lisa}, year = {2005}, month = sep, volume = {117}, pages = {1--5}, issn = {0304-3959}, doi = {10.1016/j.pain.2005.06.020}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/42B4FMG5/Mogil and Chanda - 2005 - The case for the inclusion of female subjects in b.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/4YJBKAJX/S0304395905003209.html}, journal = {Pain}, keywords = {Formalin,Sex differences,Tail-withdrawal,Variability}, number = {1} } @article{nakagawa2012, title = {Methodological Issues and Advances in Biological Meta-Analysis}, author = {Nakagawa, Shinichi and Santos, Eduardo SA}, year = {2012}, volume = {26}, pages = {1253--1274}, publisher = {{Springer}}, journal = {Evolutionary Ecology}, number = {5} } @article{nakagawa2019, title = {Research Weaving: Visualizing the Future of Research Synthesis}, author = {Nakagawa, Shinichi and Samarasinghe, Gihan and Haddaway, Neal R. and Westgate, Martin J. and O'Dea, Rose E. and Noble, Daniel W.A. and Lagisz, Malgorzata}, year = {2019}, volume = {34}, pages = {224--238}, issn = {0169-5347}, doi = {10.1016/j.tree.2018.11.007}, abstract = {We propose a new framework for research synthesis of both evidence and influence, named research weaving. It summarizes and visualizes information content, history, and networks among a collection of documents on any given topic. Research weaving achieves this feat by combining the power of two methods: systematic mapping and bibliometrics. Systematic mapping provides a snapshot of the current state of knowledge, identifying areas needing more research attention and those ready for full synthesis. Bibliometrics enables researchers to see how pieces of evidence are connected, revealing the structure and development of a field. We explain how researchers can use some or all of these tools to gain a deeper, more nuanced understanding of the scientific literature.}, journal = {Trends in Ecology \& Evolution}, keywords = {big data,data visualization,evidence synthesis,meta-analysis,meta-research,systematic review}, number = {3} } @article{nakagawa2015, title = {Meta-Analysis of Variation: Ecological and Evolutionary Applications and Beyond}, shorttitle = {Meta-Analysis of Variation}, author = {Nakagawa, Shinichi and Poulin, Robert and Mengersen, Kerrie and Reinhold, Klaus and Engqvist, Leif and Lagisz, Malgorzata and Senior, Alistair M.}, year = {2015}, volume = {6}, pages = {143--152}, issn = {2041-210X}, doi = {10.1111/2041-210X.12309}, abstract = {Meta-analysis has become a standard way of summarizing empirical studies in many fields, including ecology and evolution. In ecology and evolution, meta-analyses comparing two groups (usually experimental and control groups) have almost exclusively focused on comparing the means, using standardized metrics such as Cohen's / Hedges' d or the response ratio. However, an experimental treatment may not only affect the mean but also the variance. Investigating differences in the variance between two groups may be informative, especially when a treatment influences the variance in addition to or instead of the mean. In this paper, we propose the effect size statistic lnCVR (the natural logarithm of the ratio between the coefficients of variation, CV, from two groups), which enables us to meta-analytically compare differences between the variability of two groups. We illustrate the use of lnCVR with examples from ecology and evolution. Further, as an alternative approach to the use of lnCVR, we propose the combined use of ln s (the log standard deviation) and (the log mean) in a hierarchical (linear mixed) model. The use of ln s with overcomes potential limitations of lnCVR and it provides a more flexible, albeit more complex, way to examine variation beyond two-group comparisons. Relevantly, we also refer to the potential use of ln s and lnCV (the log CV) in the context of comparative analysis. Our approaches to compare variability could be applied to already published meta-analytic data sets that compare two-group means to uncover potentially overlooked effects on the variance. Additionally, our approaches should be applied to future meta-analyses, especially when one suspects a treatment has an effect not only on the mean, but also on the variance. Notably, the application of the proposed methods extends beyond the fields of ecology and evolution.}, copyright = {\textcopyright{} 2014 The Authors. Methods in Ecology and Evolution \textcopyright{} 2014 British Ecological Society}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/8PKBSUBG/Nakagawa et al. - 2015 - Meta-analysis of variation ecological and evoluti.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/SVRRG5YK/Nakagawa et al. - 2015 - Meta-analysis of variation ecological and evoluti.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/N2LG5WFN/2041-210X.html;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/R9XDVI73/2041-210X.html}, journal = {Methods in Ecology and Evolution}, keywords = {coefficient of variation,dispersion,diversity,effect size,manipulation,meta-regression,models,parasite behaviour manipulation,parasites,sex chromosomes,systematic reviews,trait,variability,variance}, language = {en}, number = {2} } @article{nakagawa2017, title = {Meta-Evaluation of Meta-Analysis: Ten Appraisal Questions for Biologists}, shorttitle = {Meta-Evaluation of Meta-Analysis}, author = {Nakagawa, Shinichi and Noble, Daniel W. A. and Senior, Alistair M. and Lagisz, Malgorzata}, year = {2017}, month = mar, volume = {15}, pages = {18}, issn = {1741-7007}, doi = {10.1186/s12915-017-0357-7}, abstract = {Meta-analysis is a statistical procedure for analyzing the combined data from different studies, and can be a major source of concise up-to-date information. The overall conclusions of a meta-analysis, however, depend heavily on the quality of the meta-analytic process, and an appropriate evaluation of the quality of meta-analysis (meta-evaluation) can be challenging. We outline ten questions biologists can ask to critically appraise a meta-analysis. These questions could also act as simple and accessible guidelines for the authors of meta-analyses. We focus on meta-analyses using non-human species, which we term 'biological' meta-analysis. Our ten questions are aimed at enabling a biologist to evaluate whether a biological meta-analysis embodies 'mega-enlightenment', a 'mega-mistake', or something in between.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/CUFTIC86/Nakagawa et al. - 2017 - Meta-evaluation of meta-analysis ten appraisal qu.pdf}, journal = {BMC biology}, keywords = {Biological importance,Documentation,Effect size,Humans,Knowledge,Meta-Analysis as Topic,Meta-regression,Meta-research,Models; Theoretical,Non-independence,Publication bias,Publication Bias,Publications,Quantitative synthesis,Reporting bias,Statistical significance,Systematic review}, language = {eng}, number = {1}, pmcid = {PMC5336618}, pmid = {28257642} } @article{nih2015a, title = {Consideration of Sex as a Biological Variable in {{NIH}}-Funded Research}, author = {NIH}, year = {Release date: June 9, 2015}, volume = {Notice NOT-OD-15-102} } @article{nih2015b, title = {Enhancing Reproducibility through Rigor and Transparency}, author = {NIH}, year = {Release date: June 9, 2015}, volume = {Notice NOT-OD-15-103} } @article{nowogrodzki2017, title = {Inequality in Medicine}, author = {Nowogrodzki, Anna}, year = {2017}, month = oct, volume = {550}, pages = {S18-S19}, issn = {1476-4687}, doi = {10.1038/550S18a}, abstract = {Regulators have been calling for equal representation of men and women in health research for nearly 25 years. So why are women still underrepresented?}, copyright = {2017 Nature Publishing Group, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited. All Rights Reserved.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/ALALBAK4/Nowogrodzki - 2017 - Inequality in medicine.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/6W4WQPG3/550S18a.html}, journal = {Nature}, language = {en}, number = {7674} } @article{pomiankowski1995, ids = {pomiankowskiResolutionLekParadox1995a,pomiankowskia.ResolutionLekParadox1995a}, title = {A Resolution of the Lek Paradox}, author = {Pomiankowski, A. and Moller, A. P.}, year = {1995}, volume = {260}, pages = {21--29}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/AAZT232F/Pomiankowski A. and Møller Anders Pape - 1995 - A resolution of the lek paradox.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/JKNARLC9/Pomiankowski A. and Møller Anders Pape - 1995 - A resolution of the lek paradox.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/C9B7A2UH/rspb.1995.html;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/C9LTFU8B/rspb.1995.html}, journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.Series B-Biological Sciences.}, keywords = {CVA,Fisher's fundamental theorem,heritability,lek,paradox,quantitative genetics} } @article{prendergast2014, ids = {prendergastFemaleMiceLiberated2014a}, title = {Female Mice Liberated for Inclusion in Neuroscience and Biomedical Research}, author = {Prendergast, B. J. and Onishi, K. G. and Zucker, I.}, year = {2014}, month = mar, volume = {40}, pages = {1--5}, issn = {1873-7528 (Electronic) 0149-7634 (Linking)}, doi = {10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.01.001}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/BVJSE2I2/Prendergast et al. - 2014 - Female mice liberated for inclusion in neuroscienc.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/3N92DNJ7/S0149763414000049.html}, journal = {Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.}, keywords = {*Biomedical Research,*Neurosciences,*Sex Characteristics,Animals,Female,Females,Male,Males,Mice,Sex bias,Sex differences} } @misc{rcoreteam2017, title = {R: {{A}} Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.}, author = {R Core Team}, year = {2017}, address = {{Vienna, Austria}}, howpublished = {R Foundation for Statistical Computing} } @article{reinhold2013, title = {The Variability Is in the Sex Chromosomes}, author = {Reinhold, K. and Engqvist, L.}, year = {2013}, month = dec, volume = {67}, pages = {3662--8}, issn = {1558-5646 (Electronic) 0014-3820 (Linking)}, doi = {10.1111/evo.12224}, abstract = {Sex differences in the mean trait expression are well documented, not only for traits that are directly associated with reproduction. Less is known about how the variability of traits differs between males and females. In species with sex chromosomes and dosage compensation, the heterogametic sex is expected to show larger trait variability (``sex-chromosome hypothesis''), yet this central prediction, based on fundamental genetic principles, has never been evaluated in detail. Here we show that in species with heterogametic males, male variability in body size is significantly larger than in females, whereas the opposite can be shown for species with heterogametic females. These results support the prediction of the sex-chromosome hypothesis that individuals of the heterogametic sex should be more variable. We argue that the pattern demonstrated here for sex-specific body size variability is likely to apply to any trait and needs to be considered when testing predictions about sex-specific variability and sexual selection.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/XIA2R2V5/Reinhold and Engqvist - 2013 - The Variability Is in the Sex Chromosomes.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/BURNQW9Z/evo.html}, journal = {Evolution}, keywords = {*Genetic Variation,Animals,Birds/anatomy \& histology/*genetics,Body size,Body Size,dosage compensation,Female,genetic sex determination,Germ Cells/cytology,Insecta/anatomy \& histology/*genetics,Male,Mammals/anatomy \& histology/*genetics,phenotypic variability,Quantitative Trait; Heritable,Sex Characteristics,Sex Chromosomes/*genetics,Sex Factors,sexual dimorphism,sexual selection}, number = {12} } @article{robinson2017, title = {Sex-Dependent Intestinal Replication of an Enteric Virus}, author = {Robinson, C. M. and Wang, Y. and Pfeiffer, J. K.}, year = {2017}, month = apr, volume = {91}, issn = {0022-538x}, doi = {10.1128/jvi.02101-16}, journal = {Journal of Virology}, keywords = {*coxsackievirus B3,*intestine,*pathogenesis,*sex hormones,*Virus Replication,Animals,Enterovirus Infections/immunology/*virology,Enterovirus/*physiology,Female,Intestines/immunology/*virology,Male,Mice; Inbred C57BL,Mice; Knockout,Receptor; Interferon alpha-beta/genetics,Sex Characteristics}, language = {eng}, number = {7}, pmcid = {PMC5355612} } @article{rowe1996, ids = {roweLekParadoxCapture1996a}, title = {The Lek Paradox and the Capture of Genetic Variance by Condition Dependent Traits}, author = {Rowe, L. and Houle, D.}, year = {1996}, volume = {263}, pages = {1415--1421}, publisher = {{Royal Society}}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/22JAC8NV/Rowe and Houle - 1996 - The lek paradox and the capture of genetic varianc.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/YF8IYZKA/rspb.1996.html}, journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.Series B-Biological Sciences.}, keywords = {call,condition,female preference;genetic variance;good genes;lek paradox;sexually selected traits,genetic variance,lek,paradox}, lccn = {ROW NOT IN FILE} } @article{shanskyl2016, title = {Considering Sex as a Biological Variable Will Be Valuable for Neuroscience Research}, author = {Shansky, R. M. and Woolley, C. S.}, year = {2016}, month = nov, volume = {36}, pages = {11817--11822}, issn = {1529-2401 (Electronic) 0270-6474 (Linking)}, doi = {10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1390-16.2016}, journal = {Journal of Neuroscience}, keywords = {*Sex Characteristics,*Sex Factors,Animals,Biomedical Research/*standards,Female,Humans,Male,National Institutes of Health (U.S.)/*standards,Neurosciences/*standards,Research Design/*standards,Research Support as Topic/*standards,United States}, number = {47}, pmcid = {PMC5125240} } @article{shaqiri2018, title = {Sex-Related Differences in Vision Are Heterogeneous}, author = {Shaqiri, Albulena and Roinishvili, Maya and Grzeczkowski, Lukasz and Chkonia, Eka and Pilz, Karin and Mohr, Christine and Brand, Andreas and Kunchulia, Marina and Herzog, Michael H.}, year = {2018}, month = may, volume = {8}, issn = {2045-2322}, doi = {10.1038/s41598-018-25298-8}, abstract = {Despite well-established sex differences for cognition, audition, and somatosensation, few studies have investigated whether there are also sex differences in visual perception. We report the results of fifteen perceptual measures (such as visual acuity, visual backward masking, contrast detection threshold or motion detection) for a cohort of over 800 participants. On six of the fifteen tests, males significantly outperformed females. On no test did females significantly outperform males. Given this heterogeneity of the sex effects, it is unlikely that the sex differences are due to any single mechanism. A practical consequence of the results is that it is important to control for sex in vision research, and that findings of sex differences for cognitive measures using visually based tasks should confirm that their results cannot be explained by baseline sex differences in visual perception.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/EEPDD8QD/Shaqiri et al. - 2018 - Sex-related differences in vision are heterogeneou.pdf}, journal = {Scientific Reports}, pmcid = {PMC5951855}, pmid = {29760400} } @article{smarr2017, title = {Sex Differences in Variability across Timescales in {{BALB}}/c Mice}, author = {Smarr, B. L. and Grant, A. D. and Zucker, I. and Prendergast, B. J. and Kriegsfeld, L. J.}, year = {2017}, month = feb, volume = {8}, issn = {2042-6410}, doi = {10.1186/s13293-016-0125-3}, journal = {Biology of Sex Differences} } @article{tannenbaum2019, ids = {tannenbaumSexGenderAnalysis2019a}, title = {Sex and Gender Analysis Improves Science and Engineering}, author = {Tannenbaum, Cara and Ellis, Robert P. and Eyssel, Friederike and Zou, James and Schiebinger, Londa}, year = {2019}, month = nov, volume = {575}, pages = {137--146}, issn = {1476-4687}, doi = {10.1038/s41586-019-1657-6}, abstract = {The authors discuss the potential for sex and gender analysis to foster scientific discovery, improve experimental efficiency and enable social equality.}, copyright = {2019 Springer Nature Limited}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/I4KCAY94/Tannenbaum et al. - 2019 - Sex and gender analysis improves science and engin.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/F5T9ISSE/s41586-019-1657-6.html}, journal = {Nature}, language = {en}, number = {7781} } @article{thompson2018, title = {Prenatal Hypoxia Impairs Cardiac Mitochondrial and Ventricular Function in Guinea Pig Offspring in a Sex-Related Manner}, author = {Thompson, Loren P. and Chen, Ling and Polster, Brian M. and Pinkas, Gerard and Song, Hong}, year = {2018}, month = dec, volume = {315}, pages = {R1232-R1241}, issn = {1522-1490}, doi = {10.1152/ajpregu.00224.2018}, abstract = {Adverse intrauterine conditions cause fetal growth restriction and increase the risk of adult cardiovascular disease. We hypothesize that intrauterine hypoxia impairs fetal heart function, is sustained after birth, and manifests as both cardiac and mitochondrial dysfunction in offspring guinea pigs (GPs). Pregnant GPs were exposed to 10.5\% O2 (HPX) at 50 days of gestation (full term\,=\,65 days) or normoxia (NMX) for the duration of the pregnancy. Pups were allowed to deliver vaginally and raised in a NMX environment. At 90 days of age, mean arterial pressure (MAP) was measured in anesthetized GPs. NMX and prenatally HPX offspring underwent echocardiographic imaging for in vivo measurement of left ventricular cardiac morphology and function, and O2 consumption rates and complex IV enzyme activity were measured from isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria, respectively. Prenatal HPX increased ( P {$<$} 0.01) MAP (52.3\,{$\pm$}\,1.3 and 58.4\,{$\pm$}\,1.1 mmHg in NMX and HPX, respectively) and decreased ( P {$<$} 0.05) stroke volume (439.8\,{$\pm$}\,54.5 and 289.4\,{$\pm$}\,15.8 {$\mu$}l in NMX and HPX, respectively), cardiac output (94.4\,{$\pm$}\,11.2 and 67.3\,{$\pm$}\,3.8 ml/min in NMX and HPX, respectively), ejection fraction, and fractional shortening in male, but not female, GPs. HPX had no effect on left ventricular wall thickness or end-diastolic volume in either sex. HPX reduced mitochondrial maximal respiration and respiratory reserve capacity and complex IV activity rates in hearts of male, but not female, GPs. Prenatal HPX is a programming stimulus that increases MAP and decreases cardiac and mitochondrial function in male offspring. Sex-related differences in the contractile and mitochondrial responses suggest that female GPs are protected from cardiovascular programming of prenatal HPX.}, journal = {American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology}, keywords = {heart,hypoxia,mitochondria,programming,ventricular function}, language = {eng}, number = {6}, pmcid = {PMC6425638}, pmid = {30365351} } @article{tomkins2004, title = {Genic Capture and Resolving the Lek Paradox}, author = {Tomkins, Joseph L. and Radwan, Jacek and Kotiaho, Janne S. and Tregenza, Tom}, year = {2004}, month = jun, volume = {19}, pages = {323--328}, issn = {0169-5347}, doi = {10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.029}, abstract = {The genic capture hypothesis offers a resolution to the question of how genetic variation in male sexually selected traits is maintained in the face of strong female preferences. The hypothesis is that male display traits are costly to produce and hence depend upon overall condition, which itself is dependent upon genes at many loci. Few attempts have been made to test the assumptions and predictions of the genic capture hypothesis rigorously and, in particular, little attention has been paid to determining the genetic basis of condition. Such tests are crucial to our understanding of the maintenance of genetic variation and in the evaluation of recent models that propose a role for sexual selection in the maintenance of sex. Here, we review approaches to testing the link between genetically determined condition and levels of sexual trait expression and consider the probable importance of deleterious mutations.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/DTVA9G55/Tomkins et al. - 2004 - Genic capture and resolving the lek paradox.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/KN7C7HS4/S0169534704000849.html}, journal = {Trends in Ecology \& Evolution}, language = {en}, number = {6} } @article{viechtbauer2010, title = {Conducting Meta-Analyses in {{R}} with the Metafor Package}, author = {Viechtbauer, W.}, year = {2010}, volume = {36}, doi = {10.18637/jss.v036.i03}, journal = {J Stat Softw} } @article{voelkl2020, title = {Reproducibility of Animal Research in Light of Biological Variation}, author = {Voelkl, Bernhard and Altman, Naomi S. and Forsman, Anders and Forstmeier, Wolfgang and Gurevitch, Jessica and Jaric, Ivana and Karp, Natasha A. and Kas, Martien J. and Schielzeth, Holger and {Van de Casteele}, Tom and W{\"u}rbel, Hanno}, year = {2020}, month = jul, volume = {21}, pages = {384--393}, publisher = {{Nature Publishing Group}}, issn = {1471-0048}, doi = {10.1038/s41583-020-0313-3}, abstract = {Context-dependent biological variation presents a unique challenge to the reproducibility of results in experimental animal research, because organisms' responses to experimental treatments can vary with both genotype and environmental conditions. In March 2019, experts in animal biology, experimental design and statistics convened in Blonay, Switzerland, to discuss strategies addressing this challenge. In contrast to the current gold standard of rigorous standardization in experimental animal research, we recommend the use of systematic heterogenization of study samples and conditions by actively incorporating biological variation into study design through diversifying study samples and conditions. Here we provide the scientific rationale for this approach in the hope that researchers, regulators, funders and editors can embrace this paradigm shift. We also present a road map towards better practices in view of improving the reproducibility of animal research.}, copyright = {2020 Springer Nature Limited}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/2RS8GLFD/s41583-020-0313-3.html}, journal = {Nature Reviews Neuroscience}, language = {en}, number = {7} } @article{wagner2008, title = {Sex- and Gender-Based Differences in Healthy and Diseased Eyes}, author = {Wagner, Heidi and Fink, Barbara A. and Zadnik, Karla}, year = {2008}, month = nov, volume = {79}, pages = {636--652}, issn = {1529-1839}, doi = {10.1016/j.optm.2008.01.024}, abstract = {Purpose The aim of this study was to identify sex- and gender-based differences in ocular anatomy, physiology, and disease susceptibility or manifestation. Methods Review of current indexed literature was conducted. Results Sex and sex hormones influence the lacrimal system, eyelids and blinking, corneal anatomy and disease, aqueous humor dynamics and glaucoma, crystalline lens and cataract, uveitis and retinal disease, ocular circulation, and optic nerve anatomy and disease. Systemic conditions, particularly autoimmune disease, and conditions that are unique to women, such as pregnancy and menopause, further illustrate the effects of sex hormones on the eye. Gender-based differences in ocular conditions and disease should be considered within the context of the underlying physical and social environment. Conclusions Many sex- and gender-based differences exist in healthy and diseased eyes.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/ZY9EBCPU/Wagner et al. - 2008 - Sex- and gender-based differences in healthy and d.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/DL5GPXKG/S1529183908004776.html}, journal = {Optometry - Journal of the American Optometric Association}, keywords = {Eye diseases,Gender,Hormones,Ocular physiology,Sex}, number = {11} } @article{webster2020, title = {How {{STRANGE}} Are Your Study Animals?}, author = {Webster, Michael M. and Rutz, Christian}, year = {2020}, month = jun, volume = {582}, pages = {337--340}, publisher = {{Nature Publishing Group}}, doi = {10.1038/d41586-020-01751-5}, abstract = {A new framework for animal-behaviour research will help to avoid sampling bias \textemdash{} ten years on from the call to widen the pool of human participants in psychology studies beyond the WEIRD.}, copyright = {2020 Nature}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/KACEHL8F/Webster and Rutz - 2020 - How STRANGE are your study animals.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/K9UXCR7Q/d41586-020-01751-5.html}, journal = {Nature}, language = {en}, number = {7812} } @article{zucker2020, title = {Sex Differences in Pharmacokinetics Predict Adverse Drug Reactions in Women}, author = {Zucker, Irving and Prendergast, Brian J.}, year = {2020}, month = jun, volume = {11}, pages = {32}, issn = {2042-6410}, doi = {10.1186/s13293-020-00308-5}, abstract = {Women experience adverse drug reactions, ADRs, nearly twice as often as men, yet the role of sex as a biological factor in the generation of ADRs is poorly understood. Most drugs currently in use were approved based on clinical trials conducted on men, so women may be overmedicated. We determined whether sex differences in drug pharmacokinetics, PKs, predict sex differences in ADRs.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/TFTUH5TP/Zucker and Prendergast - 2020 - Sex differences in pharmacokinetics predict advers.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/76276P5G/s13293-020-00308-5.html}, journal = {Biology of Sex Differences}, number = {1} } @article{zuk1996, title = {Sex Differences in Parasite Infections: {{Patterns}} and Processes}, shorttitle = {Sex Differences in Parasite Infections}, author = {Zuk, Marlene and McKean, Kurt A.}, year = {1996}, month = oct, volume = {26}, pages = {1009--1024}, issn = {0020-7519}, doi = {10.1016/S0020-7519(96)80001-4}, abstract = {Zuk M. \& McKean K. A. 1996. Sex differences in parasite infections: patterns and processes. International Journal for Parasitology 26: 1009\textendash 1024. Sex differences in parasite infection rates, intensities, or population patterns are common in a wide range of taxa. These differences are usually attributed to 1 of 2 causes: (1) ecological (sociological in humans); and (2) physiological, usually hormonal in origin. Examples of the first cause include differential exposure to pathogens because of sex-specific behavior or morphology. The second cause may stem from the well-documented association between testosterone and the immune system; sexually mature male vertebrates are often more susceptible to infection and carry higher parasite burdens in the field. Although many researchers favor one explanation over the other, the requisite controlled experiments to rule out confounding variables are often neglected. We suggest that sex differences in disease have evolved just as sex differences in morphology and behavior, and are the result of selection acting differently on males and females. Research has often focused on proximate mechanistic explanations for the sex difference in infection rates, but it is equally important to understand the generality of the patterns in an evolutionary context. Because males potentially gain more than females by taking risks and engaging in competition, sexual selection pressure has shaped male behavior and appearance to maximize competitive ability and attractiveness. Many of the classic male attributes such as antlers on deer are testosterone-dependent, putting males in what appears to be a cruel bind: become vulnerable to disease by developing an attractive secondary sexual ornament, or risk lowered mating success by reducing it. A variety of hypotheses have been put forward to explain why males have not circumvented this dilemma. The mating system of the host species will influence the likelihood of sex differences in parasite infection, because males in monogamous species are subject to weaker sexual selection than males in polygynous species. Whether these evolutionary generalizations apply to invertebrates, which lack testosterone, remains to be seen.}, file = {/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/JZ26BCWD/Zuk and McKean - 1996 - Sex differences in parasite infections Patterns a.pdf;/Users/sz/Zotero/storage/Q7GF77I8/S0020751996800014.html}, journal = {International Journal for Parasitology}, keywords = {endocrine-immune interactions,gender differences,host sex,parasite-host evolution,Sex differences}, number = {10} }